Siobhan's posts

C. G Pooley ‘Front Londonderry to London: Identity and sense of place for a protestant Northern Irish women in the 1930s’

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This particular article was written by historian Colin Pooley who establishes the experience of a young 18-year old young woman (which he commonly refers to as ‘R) who migrated from Northern Ireland to London in 1937 to take the work as a typist. The source highlights that the young women born into a protestant family within Londonderry in 1919 who kept numerous diaries and in-depth detailed all aspects of her life between the years 1937-1942. In particular, these detailed diaries included a vivid insight into the process of when she migrated to London which included her thoughts and feelings on leaving her home in Ireland to her adjustment to her new life and work within the city of London. The author clearly highlights that these diaries did not initially have the intension of anyone other than the author to read them, as they are clearly written like a personal document.

One aspect of ‘R’s’ life that seems to be of interest is when the author highlights that her parents had sought arrangements about accommodation for the young girl upon London by contacting the Civil service association in regards to hostels and by also contacting some boarding houses directly, however ‘R’ eventually lands a room in a hostel in Earls Court which was recommended and booked by the daughter of a family friend who had already moved from Londonderry to London. The author also highlighted that ‘R’ had a network of strong contacts already existed within London which gave her practical advantages and reassured her of anything. This is interesting as this is clearly a process of chain migration as ‘R’ clearly had trusted strong connections which she could rely upon if she needed any help within this new city.

Interestingly the author establishes that the actual acts of leaving home did in fact cause ‘R’ some distress as she had such a strong bond with her mother and with Londonderry, therefore, leaving this behind was hard for her, however, it is established that she did not view this opportunity as “leaving home” initially as she saw it more as a temporary adventure as she intended that her sister may in fact join her in London and she always had the option of coming back to Londonderry if things did not work out for her. However, the author established that less than a year after she migrated she did in fact have the opportunity to transfer to Belfast but ultimately went with the decision to stay within London as she was enjoying her time within the city. It was emphasized by the author that ‘R’ clearly suggested throughout her diary entries that she was becoming sincerely comfortable with the environment as she states that she never felt threatened or even uncomfortable living here.

Pooley also establishes that throughout the diary entries that further aspects of ‘R’s’ life are later revealed as her religious afflictions and political beliefs are clearly defined. It was established that she was a protestant from Nothern Ireland and her father was committed to the Presbyterian church and the orange order in Londonderry, therefore, the author establishes that it was expected that ‘R’ would have a much stronger identity to Britain opposed to Catholic migrants. Pooley also established that both her religion and politics enabled her to fit easily into British society and have strong views on class differences within Ireland.

Pooley then concludes this article by establishing that ‘R’ was brought to a privileged position within London in regards to many other migrants from Ireland to Britain in the 1930s, it is illustrated that this young woman was fortunate enough to have the full support of a wealthy family who arranged for her migration enabling she had work and initial accommodation within London, the author also highlights that ‘R’ was well educated and had a secure well paid job which was hugely beneficial towards her when she migrated to London in assuring she would gain a success high paid job.

Justin's posts

Ann Summers, ‘Gender, Religion and an Immigrant Minority: Jewish women and the suffrage movement in Britain c.1900–1920’

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“Gender, Religion and an Immigrant Minority: Jewish women and the suffrage movement in Britain c.1900–1920,” is an article written by Ann Summers. It is a case study which focuses on the relationship between Jewish and Christian campaigners in their want for the female suffrage. It is a complex article which focuses primarily on prominent Jewish women who were involved in not only trying to attain the suffrage but also wanting religious equality. This was because they felt both issues went hand in hand.

Summers begins the article by showing how Jewish women were not as well represented in communal work compared to their Christian counterparts. The Jewish women only began to gain social rights nearer the end of the century. For example, how the Jewish male Visiting committee membership was slowing down resulting in the formation of an official female committee in 1881. These groups usually conducted social work but became more productive when women had gotten involved more. Summer also makes the point that despite the women’s work being so influential during this time, they were not accredited until the 21st century.

The article then describes how Jewish women may have been denied equal rights due to the traditional views of men and women which were heavily prominent throughout the Jewish culture. It could also be attributed to the classical perception of masculinity. This was particularly the case regarding minority male immigrants who were already emasculated by British natives. They would be reluctant to give women equal rights purely because they had to feel like they had t have power of some sort. A group which promoted gender equality was created. The National Association of the promotion of social sciences provided a forum for men and women to meet on equal terms and was responsible for many social reforms aimed at women. In 1902, Lily Montagu persuaded scholar Claude Montefiore to head a group of men and women – which became the Jewish Religious Union – and allowed for men and women to sit together during worship.

Later in the article, Summer’s notes that the Jewish groups campaigning for women’s suffrage were late to the scene with the Jewish league becoming involved in 1912. This was because they wanted to bring co-religionists on board. There was also noticeable anti-Semitism in the major British suffrage movements which was a likely reason to why many Jewish women were not given the credit they deserved. This was arguably the reason why they were unable to make as much of an impact on universal suffrage as the Christians did. However, both religions united and created a standing joint committee of representatives of religious suffrage societies.

Gemma's posts

W. Ugolini ‘The internal enemy other’: recovering the World War Two narratives of Italian Scottish Women’ (2004)

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This paper by Wendy Ugolini aims to provide how significant the impact of the Second World War was on the construction of personal identity amongst Scottish Italian women. With reference to the anti-Italian movement, Ugolini shows its personal importance within the life stories given by Italian Scottish women. She argues that the traumatic events of the summer of 1940 provided Italians with the harsh reality of how fragile the foundations upon their acceptance in Scottish society were and how this served to drastically heighten a sense of ‘otherness’ and not belonging.

The author firstly makes a comparison between the aftermath of 9/11 with Muslims being attacked in Edinburgh and Italians facing similar attacks after Italy declared war on Britain six decades earlier in 1940. Police began to arrest Italian nationals between the ages of sixteen and seventy and with Defence Regulation 18B, this meant that a vast number of British people of Italian origin including women were also arrested. Italian women were forced to leave their homes in coastal towns which were designated ‘protected areas’ and relocate twenty miles inland. The paper aims to explore what happened to the women who were left behind to experience racist hostility on the Homefront after the ingrained memories of internment and the tragedy of the Arandora Star; a ship carrying Italian and German enemy ‘aliens’ to Canada and was torpedoed, killing over 400 internees.

Ugolini argues that there has been a tendency to romanticise the presence of Italians in Scotland to avoid stressing the more painful reality of how Italian families were treated. In order to research this, the author interviewed forty-six men and women of Italian origin, all second and third generation living in Edinburgh and other South East regions of Scotland and over half of the group were women. Ugolini emphasises that when her interviewees were asked about the outbreak of the war, they referred to the events of June 1940 rather than 1939, showing that a specific set of memories was held amongst Italians as a group.

The author demonstrates how the Anti-Italian riots were particularly widespread throughout Scotland due to the presence of religious bigotry in Scottish society. She highlights that in her interviews with the women there was a sense of trauma when discussing the riots. As one particular woman, Linda Hunt, told how such a traumatic event like the riots can ‘turn a person’s world into a much more insecure and unpredictable place than before the traumatising experience’. Ugolini continues to describe when the women were asked to relocate, they were given no support or guidance and were left alone to make their own arrangements for their businesses and children’s education. Eight of the women she interviewed had experienced relocation as a child and many had witnessed their fathers being taken away. One woman recalled the heart-breaking memory of the last time she ever saw her father. He was frying fish and chips in their shop and was suddenly taken away in his dirty clothes. Another woman remembered after being relocated, her and her family were evicted from their lodgings in Blair Atholl when the laird opposed finding ‘foreigners’ on his land.

In the places they could relocate to, Ugolini notes how the narratives she received highlight the growth of support networks for Italian women who clustered in areas such as Peebles and Pitlochry. They would find work with other Italian women and seek refuge with relatives, friends or business contacts. She demonstrates that there was a large element of sticking together. However, the enforced congregation of Italian women and their children in the same towns contributed to the growth of marginalisation and exclusion during wartime. Women as young a thirteen and fourteen were faced with the responsibility of looking after families and businesses and many respondents in Ugolini’s paper recall being exposed to xenophobic abuse such as being spat on, having stones thrown at them and being shunned in communal areas.

The author concludes that the narratives she received from women contained a recognition of their psychological fragility which was not present in the narratives from men. Women were more willing to share information on the emotional and psychological impact of being viewed as the ‘other’. Ugolini stresses in her conclusion that the abuse, intolerance and prejudice faced by Italian Scottish women during the Second World War had a long-lasting effect on the construction of personal identity and their view of themselves as being ‘outsiders’. A notable point which the author concluded was that events such as the attacking of Asian shops six decades later have the potential to bring back distressing memories amongst the older members of the Italian community in Scotland. This therefore stresses the argument that the hardships they experienced during the Second World War were so devastating that they still have a significant impact on the Italian community today.

Oliwia's posts

“Women’s Experience of Internment” by Miriam Kochan

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“Women’s Experience of Internment” by Miriam Kochan is a very detailed account of how interment looked for many women at the beginning of the Second World War. Overall, the chapter provides a timeline of events and key turning points in legislation which made a difference in women’s experiences during internment. Simultaneously, the chapter gives the reader an overview of different aspects of experience which women encountered which are mainly split into working/living conditions, relationships and communication with the outside world. Finally, the chapter also makes a number of comparisons of the treatments of women in internment camps as opposed to that of men.

 

In terms of the timeline, Kochan presents a number of the legislative changes which impacted internment. Beginning in 1940, with the Home Office order on 12 May of internment for all males ages 16-60, later on 27 May the first order to arrest women of the same age group (although they were subject to exceptions). The first main turning point in terms of internment was made on 10 July 1940 where a House of Commons debate highlighted the evils of the internment scheme. On 31 July White Papers announced the preparation of release of grade C internees who fell into one of the 18 categories presented. Kochan also highlights the importance of the Asquith Committee who made a number of recommendations which affected internment, which largely focused on releasing grade B internees – subject to a tribunal interview. Kochan states that internment was a largely finished incident in August 1942 when there were less than 5000 enemy aliens remaining on the Isle of Man.

 

Kochan also illustrates the changes which took place over time in terms of conditions within camps. In terms of conditions she highlights that they were never great, but they progressively changed from women living in small cells with the doors closed to the ability to wander round the villages of the Isle of Man when they were placed there. Also, Kochan mentions that although women always carried out domestic jobs within their hotels, they were later given a payment for their work which was 6 pence a day. In terms of relationships within camps there was a conflict noted between Nazis and non-Nazis, but regardless of that Kochan notes that fights and arguments took place daily, even amongst those who shared the same opinions which conveys that the tensions were high. Communication with the outside world as Kochan notes was very limited during the early days of internment but later became readily available and used by most, this was both in terms of news and communication between camps.

 

Kochan in the chapter also makes a number of comparisons which go to show that women were treated much more leniently than their male counterparts. This she said could be due to the fact that the Home Office was in charge of the custody of internees for women, where in the case of men it was the War Office.

 

The article is very informative and a sources its information mostly – if not entirely – from primary sources such as newspapers produced at the given time, as well as statements provided by women who experienced internment which makes the information very reliable.

Sophie's posts

“Within Our Gates: A New Perspective on Germans in Glasgow During the First World War”, Ben Braber

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“Within Our Gates: A New Perspective on Germans in Glasgow During the First World War” by Ben Braber analyses the treatment of Glasgow’s German community during the period of anti-German violence that occurred throughout Britain.

Braber looks at why the anti-German riots of 1915 did not take place in Glasgow, arguing that we must analyse the events and circumstances locally, rather than make broad assumptions on Britain’s treatment of this issue. He states that the riots did not occur in Glasgow because the desire to “strike out against Germans” was focused on political action and public debate. He also considers that the anti-German issue was overshadowed by other concerns at this time, for instance, the rent strike. Braber believes that the German community that stayed in Glasgow was under immense pressure to denounce Germany and leave their organisations, which overall led to the demise of the German community in Glasgow. He uses attitudes towards Jewish population as a comparison to the British views on the German community during the war. Also throughout the article, he briefly looks at other immigration communities, such as Belgian and Russian immigrants. The author compares the treatment of these immigrant groups with the treatment of German immigrants. Belgian refugees, for example, received a warm welcome, and the “alleged German atrocities” towards Belgium were continuously used as justification for the extreme measures against Germans living in Britain.

The article begins with a discussion of the popular debate around the issue of the deterioration of the German immigrant community, reviewing the arguments of historians such as Saunders and Panayi. Following this, Braber looks at migration as a whole, showing that Germans contributed to British society, working as clerks and waiters, for example. Braber then compares this to Jewish immigrants, highlighting that they often, for instance, worked in retail. The author then goes on to look at the measures that were taken to deal with enemy aliens, such as the Aliens Restrictions Act of 1914, which allowed authorities to restrict their lives and confiscate property, for example. Furthermore, following the sinking of the Lusitania, disturbances took place throughout Britain, including in London and Manchester. Braber lastly looks at the wider context of how the violence against Germans reflected and influenced other responses to war and unrest, arguing that the Glasgow race riots of 1919, for example, resembled the anti-German violence earlier that decade.

Overall, Braber’s article is a useful analysis of Glasgow’s response to the anti-German attitudes that were occurring throughout Britain during the war. The author confidently inserts his own opinion within the context of historical debate, and uses secondary views to strengthen his points. Furthermore, the use of primary sources, such as the Glasgow Herald, aid Braber’s argument by giving first-hand evidence from the period he addresses. Overall, Braber presents a useful and insightful argument.

Jennifer's posts

Caesar C. Aronsfeld, ‘Jewish Enemy Aliens in England During the First World War’

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Aronsfeld writes about the treatment and experiences of Jewish people during the first world war. He details that German Jews living in England suffered during the war and were treated poorly. He notes that having a British citizenship did not protect those of alien birth.

The Times newspaper was also printing anti-Semitic propaganda and used the word “Jew” in a derogatory manner. As well as this, they used the words “German” and “Jew” as interchangeable terms. Antisemitic views were spreading through Britain fast.

Aronsfeld Further notes that Jewish M.Ps and people of power were discriminated against. For example, Mr Arthur Strauss, the conservative M.P for North Paddington was asked to resign because he was a native German. It did not matter that he was naturalized, only that he came from Germany. This Highlights that nobody was safe from anti-Semitic views and opinions during the war. if an individual was German or Jewish, they would be discriminated against. He also notes that Edgar Speyer was requested to resign from the chairmanship of the hospital that he worked at because of threats of large withdraws of subscribers if he remained on the board. His wife was also asked to remove their daughters from the school that they attended in London, in fear that English people would take their daughters away and enrol them in different schools.

Additionally, After the sinking of the Lusitania Sir Arthur Pinero, the playwright suggested that the Jewish community band together and express their detestation of Germanys welfare. However, the Jewish community did not think it was necessary to confirm their loyalty to Britain when they had lived there for so long, but a frenzy of public opinion forced them to do so. Aronsfeld highlights that there were consequences for the Jewish community if they did not affirm their loyalty to Britain. If they kept silent it may have led to suspicion of them “sitting on the gate”. Many members of the Jewish community felt humiliated that they were forced to show their loyalty to Britain through writing, as they had been showing their loyalty for many years through their deeds.

Aronsfeld concluded his chapter by noting that the Jewish community had been boycotted and abandoned from their adopted country. A country that they had proven their loyalty to many times had now shunned them because they were by law “aliens”.

Heather's posts

S. Yarrow, ‘The impact of hostility on Germans in Britain’ 1914-1918

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‘The impact of hostility on Germans in Britain 1914-18’ by S. Yarrow seeks to evaluate the effect of hostility on the German migrants in Britain in the war years of 1914 to 1918. Yarrow creates an unbiased and intriguing argument that centres on the idea of the German community not being homogenous and that this lack of cohesion meant the anti-German hostility impacted individuals in a complex way.

Firstly, arrow notes provides context by referring to hostility faced by migrants and the suffering this caused, especially for  wives of German migrants. The  lack of  husbands, due to internment, meant that wives were left vulnerable to destitution. In turn the British and German government had to take action. The Destitute Aliens Committee was therefore set up in November 1915 to provide funds to the wives of interned soldiers. Along with other associations  such as the CCUAR (Central council of United Aliens Relief), which sought to change the perception of German migrants as the enemy, Yarrow emphasises  the way in which the German community came together to support the most vulnerable during a time of need.

Yarrow goes on to show the actions of naturalised Germans, much of whom were benefactors of prominent German organisations, to articulate the point of complex reactions. Richer naturalised Germans felt it their responsibility to show the common interest of those Germans who were restricted by government initiatives but as well they still had to be loyal to Britain. These individuals, therefore, gave back to the German community as well as Britain. Baron Von Schrooler for example gave a home for the children of enemy aliens, while also giving money to war charities. The loyalty letters, as Yarrow shows, were a way that naturalised Germans showed their loyalty to Britain, as a result of the recent Lusitania attacks. It is suggested that many felt it was their duty to write the letters but it was still a risky move in showing a relationship with enemy aliens. The point Yarrow argues is that the loyalty letters and the actions of naturalised Germans are evidence that the naturalised were trying to preserve the links between themselves and the enemy aliens during hostility.

It was not only the naturalised Germans who organised themselves during hostility. Rudolf Rocket, a German writer and activist, set up a kitchen for German migrants who had lost their jobs. The CCUARS for example branched out into constituent societies. The charity work of the CCUARS in conjunction with the Home Office and police, was as according to Yarrow  coming together to provide a safety net for Germans in a time of need.

Yarrow lastly points to internment camps to finalise this complex reaction. Through the use of contemporary and modern interpretations, such as Sylvia Pankhurst, Yarrow shows that internees suffered great physical and mental side effects in the camps. Yet some suffered in better conditions. The camp divisions which formed along class, religion and professional lines emphasised the differing reactions to hostility, to segregate into communities. Although in all of these sections there was a growing sense of German nationalism. It is rather interesting how even in time of hostility many Germans showed their roots with pride, in a sense it was almost a way of proving them before they were fully destroyed. It can be argued that these camps were a representation of the German community in hostile times, the separation within mimicked that on the outside but yet there was still some sense of community left as everyone would band together to honour their German heritage.

Emily's posts

Stefan Manz “Civillian Internment in Scotland during the First World War”. In ‘Totally un-English’?: Britain’s Internment of ‘Enemy Aliens’ in Two World Wars, edited by R. Dove.

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This chapter takes a brief look at the German migrant community in Scotland before the First World War, before looking at how German and Austrian settlers were treated during the war, and looking at conditions in the central Scottish internment camp. Previous studies by John C. Bird and Panikos Panayi show there was anti-German hysteria in the UK around the time of the First World War, as people believed that they were spies. However these studies do not tackle anti-German hysteria in a Scottish context, which this chapter does.

The German community in Scotland was 2,362 in 1911, versus 53, 324 in England and Wales. The chapter mentions types of German professions in Scotland, such as school and university teachers, hairdressers, bakers and miners. There was a high participation in German ethnic activities, but these were dissolved by the outbreak of war in 1914 by introduction of restrictive measures against ‘enemy aliens’ brought in by the UK Government, which Scotland fell under. Before and during the war many Germans in Scotland had their shop windows smashed in anti-German riots, just like in England. Establishments like restaurants were posting notices saying they would not serve Germans or German-born Britons as British customers were unwilling to sit near them.

The Aliens Restriction Act of the 5th of August 1914 gave the British wartime government the power to deal with ‘enemy aliens’ as they saw fit. As a result, the movement of Germans or Austrians living in Britain at the time of war was tightly monitored and controlled. The chapter gives the examples of Friedrich Bernhard Wiegand and Fritz A. Schrieber, who were two migrants living in Scotland at the time. Wiegand was interned as an ‘enemy alien’ in the Knockaloe internment camp on the Isle of Man in 1915, despite having lived in Scotland since 1899, and having a Scottish-born family. Wiegand was able to return to his family in November 1918. Schreiber was not so fortunate in his experience. He resigned from his job as Managing director of Tenents Brewery in Glasgow in 1916. The board told him that there was strong feeling against the re-imposition of a foreign worker in management. Schreiber was then interned, and then repatriated to Germany, where he died shortly after.

The chapter also states that Police Scotland would show up on the doorsteps of ‘enemy aliens’ and take them to a prison cell for a couple of nights, before being handed over to the military to be interned. Once in the internment camps, visits were restricted to Saturdays and were attended by an interpreter, and all ingoing and outgoing mail was censored. The long periods of internment and isolation caused boredom and depression. Work, recreation and education were the only ways to escape boredom. Around the camps German prisoners assisted in the infirmary and the kitchen. Many prisoners engaged in road building and played football.

During the war many German and Austrian settlers in Scotland were displaced. The whole of the Scottish East Coast was declared a prohibited area for ‘enemy aliens’.

Justin's posts

Bernard Harris, ‘Anti-Alienism, health and social reform in late Victorian and Edwardian Britain’

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‘Anti-Alienism, health and social reform in late Victorian and Edwardian Britain’ is an article written by Bernard Harris. In this article, Harris writes about how British health and social reforms were motivated primarily by racial prejudices regarding the Jewish immigrants. He does this by illustrating the arguments from several anti-alienists who associate any negative issue arising in Britain as coming from the Jewish immigrants. Harris also incorporates the pro-alienist arguments to strike balance in this argument and to show how the anti-alienist’s arguments were most likely ignorant and based primarily on racial stereotypes.

This article begins by showing how anti-alienists created the widely accepted notion that Jews were allegedly ‘physically enfeebled, without marketable trades, and willing to work for pittance’. This view was based mainly on racial prejudices but was reinforced by the likes of Major Williams Evans Gordon, who used the 1903 Royal Commission to study how Jews lived back home. This study was used to justify the British prejudice, as he had chosen the cities were Jewish poverty was rife and how this way of living would be a threat to the British way of living – particularly those who failed to get into America due to health reasons, so would settle in Britain.

These views also stemmed into racism with many Britons forming the opinion that Jews were an inferior race, hence why they were ‘inherently unhealthy’. Again, this view was exemplified by Evans Gordon who accused the Jews of bringing over diseases such as smallpox and scarlet fever. This was an issue of sanitary conditions during travel rather than inherent ailments, however. Although, Jews were likely to live in overcrowded accommodations with little sanitation – keeping the issue of Jewish health and the British population alive.

Harris later uses several medical professionals’ opinions to refute the claims made by the anti-alienists regarding Jewish immigrant’s health. For example, he quotes Dr James Niven to show that the Jewish population was ‘entirely free of both typhus and smallpox’. Many health professionals of the time also agree that the immigrants were used to a lesser standard of living but would get better after a couple of years of living in Britain. These professionals also note that they were more law abiding than the British natives who showed more care towards their children – with infant mortality rates lessening wherever a large Jewish community was present. Harris notes that 45% of non- Jewish children had rickets compared with only 17% from Jewish children. Also, 51% of Non-Jewish children had poor oral health compared to 27% from Jewish children. This evidence showed that the Jewish immigrants were superior to the Brits regarding health and nutrition – a stark contrast from the pseudoscience displayed by the anti-alienist advocates. This resulted in H.W Ward telling the Royal Commission in 1903 that ‘the foreign settlers in the East End… are a great deal preferable to a large number of our own people living in the same district’.

To achieve better analysis between Jewish immigrants and the British native’s health, Harris uses the large Jewish population (1850-1914) in Leeds as a case study. From this, it is not clear to tell if Jewish infant mortality was lesser than a gentile. It was clear however, that Jewish schoolchildren tended to be less dirty with lesser verminous conditions. Harris notes however, that the criteria’s used to measure children’s health tended to be vague and was open to bias, depending on the medical professionals’ personal prejudices.

From this article, there was little to no difference between the health of the Jewish immigrants when compared to the British. The main motivation for anti-immigration from an anti-alien perspective was either racism or irrationality. This became more evident when Harris quoted a decade worth of medical data from Leeds and incorporated medical observations from professionals.

Oliwia's posts

Session 5 – ‘The Anti-Jewish Riots of 1911 in South Wales: A Re-Examination’ W.D Rubinstein

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This blog post will focus on the main aspects of the re-examination of the riots in 1911 which took place in South Wales provided by W.D Rubinstein.

 

Overall, this article is lengthy due to the amount of detail it includes and shows a different perspective into the 1911 riots of South Wales. Rubinstein clearly highlights the aim of this articles in the introductory session which is to question all the popular assumptions about the riots. He does this by arguing that: philo-Semitism* was an important part of Welsh culture and identity, claims of premeditation were false and the anti-Jewish climate and anti-Semitic aspects assumed during these riots were greatly exaggerated.

 

To illustrate the first argument, Rubinstein points out that during the late 19th century when Jews were being persecuted in Russia, the Welsh were especially vocal in support of the victims which is evident through the rallies held in Wales against the persecution, first of which was held in February 1882 – 10 months after the first pogrom.

 

Additionally, the article argues that due to the lack of an organised group in South Wales at the given time, historians tend to exaggerate the importance of minor events around 1911 in order to emphasise a false belief of anti-semitism intensifying in the area. Rubinstein uses an example the ‘blood libel’ which allegedly took place in Pontypridd in 1903 and argues that the allegations were false and in fact were not based on any real evidence. As a matter of fact, the news of this was only published in one source where the information came from an unnamed correspondent.

 

Rubinstein next counter-argues the theory of the riots being fuelled by anti-Antisemitism, particularly ‘rich Jews’ anti-semitism. The article states that although there is evidence of left-wing sources targeting wealth individuals – primarily Jews – there is no evidence that could link such sources to the riots of 1911. Rubinstein also argues that although the riots began by targeting Jewish properties their dynamic changed over the following week as non-Jewish shops were also damaged – which was largely omitted by the press. The initial attacks of the riots – as argued by Rubinstein – were not fuelled by anti-Semitism but indeed rooted in economic reasons. The Jewish shopkeepers and landlords were accused of raising prices of necessities which angered to general public.

 

This articles in thorough and very informative – providing arguments that are not popular with other historians. The author uses a number of sources to form his counter-arguments which majorly focus on the work of Professor Alderman.

 

*philo-Semitism is described as an interest in, respect for and an appreciation of Jewish people.