Gemma's posts

‘The Tredegar riots of 1911: anti Jewish disturbances on south Wales’ by C. Holmes

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‘The Tredegar Riots of 1911’ by Colin Holmes describes the racial and ethnic violence which occurred in south Wales in August 1911 when Welsh locals began to attack and loot Jewish businesses within the town. In this article Holmes uses evidence from the Home Office file containing telegrams that were passed between Tredegar and Abergavenny and the Home Office which outline the level of concern that the riots caused at the time. Additionally, within the article Holmes demonstrates how Britain has a national ego when it comes to discussing racial and ethnic violence, as it flatters itself into believing it is a tolerant country with decency. However, he argues that is an ‘enduring myth’ and his discussion of the Tredegar riots establishes this.

The Tredegar riots began on Saturday 19th August and ended suddenly the following weekend. Jewish shops were wrecked and looted within the town to such an extent that the military were asked to intervene and there was the intention of rioters to precede over the mountains to attack other Jews in different villages. With the population of only 160 Jews in Tredegar, Holmes highlights that this was ‘a clear indication that large numbers of a minority group are not needed to generate violent opposition’.

The view of the presiding magistrate at Tredegar was that at first, the violence was specifically directed against the Jewish community themselves. However, Holmes suggests that by the time of the riots, violence against the Jewish community had become more generalised and joined with other tensions. For instance, he describes how multiple strikes against the coal and railway sectors had raised social tensions and caused personal distress prior to the riots. Therefore, the Jews were made the scapegoats for the problems that the workers had experienced in Tredegar.

Moreover, Holmes discusses how there was already a pattern of violence present in Welsh society regarding race and ethnicity. He gives examples of the Irish and their economic, political and religious differences, the Chinese community with the Cardiff Maritime Review calling them ‘cheap’ and also after the Tredegar riots, in 1912 with the traveller communities in Llanelli and in 1919 there was violence against the black population.

Holmes therefore concludes that such violence did not only occur in Wales and such events have their parallels. He argues that it becomes clear that most ethnic and racial minorities in Britain at different times in a variety of places have found themselves targets of physical attacks and assaults. Overall, Holmes suggests that racial and ethnic violence will be a persistent presence within society.

Siobhan's posts

D. Renshaw ‘Prejudice and paranoia: a comparative study of antisemitism and Sinophobia in turn-of-the century Britain’

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Historian Daniel Renshaw is a lecturer at Brunel University in London. His research is based around the study of Jewish and Irish Catholic Communities with their interaction with radical politics in East London between the years 1889-1912.

The following article primarily discusses prejudice attitudes aimed at the Chinese and Jewish minorities within late 19th and early 20th century Britain.  The article starts off by distinguishing that both Chinese and Jewish minority groups were characterised as “fundamentally alien to British society” to which the author mentions how both minorities were both often portrayed negatively throughout the British press.  The author also establishes throughout this article that anti-semantic and Sinophobia language had been presented by Conservatives, Liberals and the Labour movement within the 1906 general election. It was known that the Liberal Party and the Labour movement claimed that the Boer War had been portrayed as a “Jews war”  motivated by Jewish financial interests in South Africa. The author also illustrated that the conservatives saw the Chinese minority as an economic and social threat to domestic works forces. The author then again emphasized contemporary attitudes towards the Jewish community as he includes an extract of a 1904 Socialist pamphlet that revealed that Jewish tailors should not be welcome in England at all. This itself demonstrates the hostility towards the Jewish minority throughout this period.

The author also establishes that both the Chinese and Jewish minorities often endured an exploitive capitalist system, as they would commonly work greater hours and in worse conditions for less money.  The Chinese were commonly known to be sailors as the majority of them worked as stokers, these jobs were not seen as attractive to Europeans since this trade necessitated men spending long periods away from home. As a result, Chinese people became established in port cities such as London, Liverpool and Cardiff.

Again the author presents how the Chinese and Jews were negatively portrayed throughout Britain as he established that they were often associated as carriers of various foreign diseases, to which Sinophobic and antisemitic propaganda tended to be portrayed immigrants were viewed as dirty with lacking basic hygiene measures. In particular, the author illustrates how the Jewish refugees were seen as violent anarchists, Nihilists and career criminals. He also establishes that the Chinese were represented as being addicted to narcotics both opium and Gambling. Throughout this source, it was also established that Chinese men were often accused of distributing opium-laced sweets to young girls as well as giving alcohol to children and luring women int laundries with flattery and gifts before seducing them.

Lastly, the author establishes the outbreaks of serious physical violence outbreaks against both communities throughout the Edwardian era, to which he comes to the conclusion that it was relatively rare however there was some accounts of sporadic violence occurring throughout East London, Leeds and Manchester as he establishes that this was commonly occurring between gangs of children and youths. The author furthers this argument by establishing that more serious anti-semantic violence occurred throughout Limerick in Ireland within areas of small Jewish communities. Overall the article written by historian Daniel Renshaw aims to provide an insight of how the Jewish and Chinese Communities were negatively portrayed, it also effectively provides detail of how both ethnic groups experienced prejudice attitudes throughout late 19th and early 20th century Britain.

Christy's posts

David Cesarani, “An Alien Concept? The continuity of anti-alienism in British society before 1940” (1993)

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David Cesarani’s chapter “An Alien Concept? The continuity of anti-alienism in British society before 1940” (1993) This chapter discusses, how the construction of the term alien arose, and  How within the nineteenth century a visible shift in the attitudes towards aliens took place in Britain. The link between economic, political, and personal ideas of nationality, as well as the large influx in immigrants numbers are all discussed in the possible answer as to why Britain was dived  between pro, and anti-alienists.

Cesarani discusses how anti-alien feelings were difficult to describe as one select subject, but rather a large mixture of feelings linked to crime, revolutionary politics, anarchism, and was inseparable with the construction of national identity and internal strains, which was expressed through English literature, preaching the importance of “Englishness”. It was hard according to Cesarani to place anti-alienism within a timeline, to avoid it faliing into the margins of history. He wanted to make it clear that anti-alienist views are located centrally in British society as well as its political culture. Bernard Porter a British historian, was quoted explaining that at the time that Britain believed it had, 

                                    “Moral and political superiority over her continental neighbours”

It was clear to Cesarani that Britain was far from innocent of Xenophobia, with evidence of its use of prejudice, stereotypes, and hateful attitudes towards minority groups including Russians, Jewish, Chinese, Germans, and African individuals. Bernard argued that the predominant source of these attitudes in 1870 came from nations who’s way of life and characteristics were different to that of Britain. The mass migrations of the early 1880s saw an influx in opinions and policy-making of the Jewish and eastern European minorities, arguments over housing and employment. The concept of the term alien was used to describe the hostile feelings of those who came from different parts of the world and brought their different cultures, languages, and ways of life. This in turn left many Brits feeling protective over the British nationality, and Cesarani stated that the threat ultimately led to the display of anti-alien attitudes.

By 1992 the first legislation to restrict alien movements appeared, and was linked to the fall of liberal England, as well as the First World War. In 1914 Reginald McKenna put through new aliens restrictions act, which included prohibited areas where aliens could not reside.  spy-mania, the Russian revolution, unemployment rises, and the effects of alleged opium smoking, were all targeted events promoting the normalising of anti alien behaviours.  By 1929 the act continued to evolve, and adopted more restrictions including that all aliens seeking work, had to obtain permits from the ministry of labour. This established a link between economic conditions and the control of immigration. Another example In 1920 was the fact that police could now close restaurants, places of entertainment, gathering points, and even restrain aliens without a warrant.By the 1930s much of the same stereotypes and negative attitudes remained, blaming immigrants  for high unemployment numbers, the spread of diseases, crime rates, and even the damage to property of Englishmen. And lastly by 1940 the press “with column” reported that 64 per cent of the British public deemed laws on aliens as being  “too lenient”. 

Cesarani concludes  that the concept of Anti-Alienism, particularly within the goverments and courts, was directly related to periods of economic struggles, political instabilities and threats from external countries. This was compared to the liberal pro-alienists, who Cesarani links with  public confidence and optimism . Anti-Alienist had been a direct link between British national identity, and the fear of Britain’s instability within the global sphere. The public had started to fear the loss of a British Identity, and a feeling of “Englishness” and as a result they turned to anti-aliens views to restrict their movements. 

Abbie's posts

Session Four – C. Holmes ‘Anti Semitism in British Society, 1876-1939’

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This book by Holmes, as suggested by the title, explores the experience of Jews in Britain at the end of the nineteenth century into the beginning of the twentieth century. The chapter ‘Movements and Measures Against Jews’ details the organised attacks and experiences held by the Jewish population in Britain. Holmes is a specialist in Social and Economic History.

This chapter by Holmes provides an in-depth analysis of the British Brothers League (BBL) and varying attempts in Britain and Ireland that displayed hostility towards Jews. He examines the anti-Semitic nature of the organisation and the United Kingdom itself. Holmes begins the chapter by speaking of the British Brothers League, illustrating that the increase in immigration after 1900 and the current social pressures in London helped the emergence of the league.

Holmes recants the cold manifesto of the league, which states that alien paupers were ‘driving English people out of their native parishes and literally taking the bread out of English peoples mouths’ which was a comment on the American Aliens Act, stressing that if Americans needed restrictions on a country as grand in size of that, then it stressed immediate need for Britain to take action. By including this, Holmes immediately illustrates the brutal hostility of the local population towards the Jews.

As the BBL was growing,  the organisation faced controversy with many differing opinions on alien immigration / anti-Semitism and thus, Tory MP’s were warned about their involvement with the league and often the BBL were associated with ‘extremists’ that had ‘a warmth of language’. Through the negative connotations of the BBL, political officials spent time associating themselves with the Immigration Reform Association (IRA) instead. The IRA, tightly controlled by upper and middle class restrictionists, was opposed to the immigration of those who had ‘bad character’. Their manifesto specifically stated they lay no claim to stress upon the ethnic origins of immigrants. The IRA was favoured by the Conservative government, it was viewed as the more ‘respectable’ group.

Furthermore, Holmes makes sure to document the cases of anti-Semitism in other parts of Britain and Ireland to document the agitation felt by the public. Holmes comments on Limerick, Ireland which had several outbreaks of anti-Semitism often tracing back to a Redemptionist monk. The hostility went as far as the local population planning organised attacks and boycotting Jewish businesses which lasted two years, driving the majority of the Jewish community in Limerick out.

Overall, Holmes details the organisations involved and attacks made that express the hostile environment of Jews in Britain. He uses over 96 sources to illustrate the anti-Semitism in Britain, ultimately concluding on the fact the Aliens Bill is not explicitly anti-Semitic as nothing within the bill specifically casts out Jews, but the organisations at hand in putting the bill through may be another story.

Emily's posts

Jill Pellew- The Home Office and the Aliens Act, 1905

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This blog post will discuss Jill Pellew’s article in the Historical Journal, ‘The Home Office and the Aliens act, 1905’.

The article talks about how the 1905 Aliens act was brought about in Britain. Pellow suggests this was due to a number of reasons, including the increase in Jewish refugees, home office concern that rising migration was a threat, and the increase in support for anti-immigration MPs.

Many Jewish refugees were arriving from Eastern Europe and Russia at the end of the 1800s, either fleeing persecution or simply looking for a better life. Many were heading to the United States of America, but some stayed and found work, particularly in tailoring. The high numbers of immigrants and the fear that many would not continue on to the USA helped lead to the creation of the 1905 Aliens act.

Pellew explains that there was a concern in the Home Office about a possible threat from the increase in rising migration, which was thought could come in the form of political instability or criminality. There was a particular fear about anarchists entering Britain, as there had been a wave of anarchist terrorism across Europe during the end of the 19th century. This fear about the political and moral backgrounds of migrants contributed to the 1905 act being created.

The article also suggests that the idea for an Aliens act really gained momentum in 1900 when a number of Unionist MPs gained seats in the east end of London, largely by supporting an anti-alien political line.

Pellew also gives some information as to what changes the act made. For example, the 1905 act stated that certain ports where ships were allowed to discharge passengers would now have immigration officers at them. These immigration officers would have the power to reject any ‘undesirable’ immigrants. An undesirable immigrant was specified in the act as someone who could not ‘decently’ support themselves and their dependants (although there was a special clause which made an exception for immigrants who were seeking entry as political or religious refugees). ‘Undesirables’ also included lunatics or idiots, those sentenced in a foreign country with which there was an extradition treaty, and those who already had an extradition treaty made against them.

The article also mentions that Winston Churchill agreed with home office officials that there should be a miniature Ellis Island facility in Britain, as it made it more difficult for ‘undesirable’ immigrants to evade detection.

Of the immigrants who were rejected due to the 1905 Aliens act, half of them appealed. Of this half, 38 per cent were successful.

Heather's posts

A. Bashford and C. Gilchrist , ‘The Colonial History of the 1905 Aliens Act’

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Bashford and Gilchrist’s article, ‘The Colonial History of the 1905 Aliens Act’, is a well convincing article that fits into the course theme of government responses. Using large amounts of primary evidence, from legislation, it articulates the point that Britain during the nineteenth century was lagging behind in terms of immigrant restrictions. In comparison to the colonies and further afield such as America, Britain was more liberal with its restrictions. The authors, from this, go onto argue that the Aliens Act of 1905 was modelled off the restrictions of other countries not copied. To do this, Bashford and Gilchrist track the progress of the Aliens Act from the late nineteenth century and the massing agitation to the Royal Commission and finally to the passing of the act in 1905. The authors use a variety of scholarly material from historians such as Colin Holmes to emphasise immigration restriction as a transnational phenomenon and not as a US one.

A large portion of the article is spent detailing the Royal Commission. The authors show that much of the reports produced for the commission were based of legislation in place overseas such as Frederick Mead’s report which presented a proposal based on US laws. In relation, the authors detail the motives of the commission more of a focus on the second motive, to analyse other countries restrictions. For example, the passport control measure which was seen to be effective in Argentina in keeping Jewish immigrants out and deemed by Britain as a ‘satisfactory means of control’. In analysing restrictions, Britain was able to see what worked and what didn’t.

Even though Bashford and Gilchrist detail this process of comparison during the Royal Commission they also emphasises that although restrictions on the continent or America, for example, were similar there were still differences present. For instance, on the continent there was no law defining the class of the arrivals and so it was left up to the police to decide on the immigrant’s status. While in the US, this was placed on the shipping companies who could refuse passage.

Bashford and Gilchrist reference the problem of defining the terms within the act. It was questioned what constituted an ‘undesirable immigrant’. Fredrick Mead’s report in 1902 put forth that undesirables were people who were ‘detrimental to the community’ on the grounds of bad character, disease or offensive habits. Mead turned to the Australian and American restrictions, which prompted criminals as ‘detrimental’. Mead expanded this idea and suggested this had to be further defined by the inclusion of ‘wider categories. The commission agreed that enforcing bad character was problematic but looking to an Australian example found that using convictions since entering the country against the immigrant could be a solution. Clearly, the Royal Commission acknowledged the landing of ‘objectional characters’ (criminals) as something to be prevented and this was influenced by the fact that exclusion of convicted criminals being common in settler- colonial law. But the commission was different, according to the authors, its banishment of criminals derived from continental legal traditions, emphasising an aspect of moulding over copying.

 

Jennifer's posts

Henry Maitles ‘Attitudes to Jewish Immigration in the West of Scotland to 1905’ Scottish Economic and Social History 15 (1995)

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Maitles article is about Jewish immigration to the west of Scotland. It gives detail on many of the reasons that the Jewish community were harassed and bullied when they came here. The article also gives reasons as to why parliament brought in the aliens act 1905.

Maitles begins this chapter by noting that in the West of Scotland Many claimed that resentment and harassment towards immigrants did not happen despite evidence to suggest otherwise from immigrants. He further notes that the reason that Jewish people were coming to Britain was following the Russian revolution as it was suggested the only way to solve the Jewish problem would be if 1/3 emigrated, 1/3 converting and 1/3 being killed. He also notes that fast and cheap travel made it easier to relocate as steam ships and trains developed throughout the 19th century.

Racism and hostility toward immigrants were and still are harmful features of our society. There were false reports that the Jewish community lived in small shtetls and were peasant farmers. However, they were actually restricted to certain trades; financing, cigarette making and clothing. Maitles details how sweating in Britain was a significant factor in anti-immigration attitudes. He notes that many refugees were employed by masters to work at rock bottom rates for long hours in terrible conditions, which cut the rate of fully skilled workers. Sweating caused disease, overcrowding and it also caused a lack of sanitation. In London there were thousands of immigrants involved in sweating but the number in Glasgow was unclear. Sweating was seen as an immigrant problem and then by the end of the 19th century it was seen as a Jewish problem. This Highlighting the hostility towards the immigrants, as the blame should have been on the masters employing the immigrants for such low rates.

Maitles Further details about Immigration controls that came at the end of the 19th century. He details how Some immigrants were even in favour of the aliens act, as there was a class divide between the west and south side Jewish communities. Media outlets were reporting that Britain was a dumping ground for the diseased and poor immigrants as America and Canada would only accept the healthiest. Trade unions were also backing immigration controls to protect workers against poor conditions, wage undercutting and disease.

On August 11th 1905 the aliens act was passed and had immediate effect as the number of immigrants arriving in Britain was decreasing from previous years. However, the liberal government that came into power in 1906 were not harsh on this new law and were accused of flouting the law by the conservatives. The aliens act highlights how easily the British government were swayed by racist attitudes towards immigrants. Even though the immigrants were not to blame for their poor conditions and wages they were given the blame and treated poorly.

Sophie's posts

“Importing Trachoma: The Introduction into Britain of American Ideas of an ‘Immigrant Disease’, 1892-1906” by Krista Maglen

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“Importing Trachoma: The Introduction into Britain of American Ideas of an ‘Immigrant Disease’, 1892- 1906”, written by Krista Maglen primarily argues that trachoma became a significant discussion in the British political and medical scene, and played a role in the 1905 Alien Act: Britain’s first restrictive immigration act. Furthermore, Maglen also contends that increased legislation in America led to the perception of trachoma as a disease carried by immigrants.

The article begins by outlining that migrants have frequently been associated with disease, and their communities in Britain were often perceived as places where disease was prevalent. Additionally, Maglen mentions that little has been written about trachoma’s association with immigrants in Britain and the link it has with America. She does, however, mention that historian Kenneth Collins discusses trachoma and its link to Jewish immigrants in Glasgow at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Furthermore, Maglen explains the importance of the fact that over one million of the estimated 2.4 million Russian and Polish immigrants who settled in America passed through British ports. This is key because America’s immigration legislations restricted the entrance of migrants with disease, which meant that those who were rejected from America were taken back to their last port of departure. Steamships would frequently return migrants to Britain instead of Eastern and Central Europe as it was less distance from America. Therefore, many Brits were not supportive of the ‘undesirable’ immigrants being brought back to live in Britain, thus, the American view of particular diseases as ‘immigrant diseases’ quickly became popular in Britain. In addition, Brits viewed these migrants as not only an economic burden, but also a threat to public health. Maglen emphasises that trachoma was easily identifiable through inflammation and redness in the eyes, therefore making it easy for anti-immigration campaigners to push their agenda due to the disease’s aspect of visibility.

Furthermore, Maglen states that this issue became prominent in the British medical press in 1892 and remained there throughout the decade. Additionally, the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration in 1902-03 took evidence about trachoma from ophthalmic physicians, including Francis Tyrrell who stated that “the Jewish people are peculiarly prone to trachoma”. Although it was transparent that immigrants weren’t the cause of trachoma, the final report did not oppose to the categorising of trachoma sufferers as undesirable for entry into Britain. Maglen concludes that the restrictions of trachoma sufferers did not have a significant impact on Britain because trachoma did not generally have a large impact in Britain, and was, for the most part, a concept used by anti-immigration campaigners to further their cause.

Overall, this article is well-written, well-structured and provides a convincing argument. Maglen uses multiple primary sources, such as the evidence of a Medical Officer and ophthalmic surgeon at the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration in 1902, to support her argument, which strengthens the source overall. The article highlights one of the reasons why the Aliens Act of 1905 was introduced and shows how the British perception of migrants was altered by American legislation.

Gemma's posts

‘The Lithuanians’ by Murdoch Rodgers (1985)

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In this article Rodgers discusses the push and pull factors which made Lithuanians emigrate to Britain but mainly Scotland. He identifies the various experiences that this group had in relation to employment, politics and social life as well as the struggles they faced from dealing with opposition from locals, the press and the government. Through examining all of these factors, Rodgers successfully highlights how the Lithuanian community maintained their identity within the large community that was established until it was significantly deteriorated after the First World War.

Firstly, Rodgers discusses the push and pull factors which encouraged Lithuanians to go to Britain and contribute to the growth of the community. Predominately peasants, they were pushed to leave Lithuania due to the huge decline in their standard of living as a result of an increase in population, heavier taxation and a fall in grain prices. Such a change to their standard of living was so significant that Rodgers highlights how one in four Lithuanians made the decision to leave between 1868 and 1914. Additionally, he notes the important factor that around 15,000 Lithuanians were resident in Scotland before moving to further destinations like America and it was cheaper for them to travel through the ports of Leith and Glasgow rather than go direct. Scotland also provided financial opportunities through the expanding coal, steel and iron industries in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. Through these employment opportunities, many were also offered housing which encouraged them to stay. Rodgers also points out how the growth of the Lithuanian community was sustained through the ‘emigrant letter’, which was their continued contact with family back in Lithuania after they had emigrated.

Whilst working and living in Britain the Lithuanian community faced considerable opposition from the locals, particularly in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. Rodgers highlights that as early as 1887, the Ayrshire Miners Union led by Keir Hardie demanded their removal, as their presence was “menace to the health and morality of the place and is besides, being used to reduce the already too low wages earned by the workmen.” Similar was the situation in Lanarkshire which was the main settlement for Lithuanians. Here, the Lanarkshire County Miners Union protested again the underestimated presence of Lithuanians in the mines. Additionally, in one of the Lanarkshire newspapers in 1900 the Lithuanian community were made out to be unclean and barbarous with ingrained violence and anarchy. It is also important to note that they were referred to as ‘Poles’, suggesting that their nationality was ignored, and the main focus was on how negative their presence was. With regards to opposition, Rodgers points out that at the time the mining community already contained squalid living conditions, heavy drinking and reckless behaviour. Therefore, in terms of ‘health’ and ‘morality’ it was easier for them to direct such concerns at outsiders rather than addressing it themselves.

However, Rodgers goes onto discuss how unionisation became significant in improving relations between the Lithuanian labour force and the LCMU. After encouraging Lithuanian membership in the union through printing rules in the language and offering entitlement to include full benefits, the Lithuanian labour force began to take an active part in union affairs in the years leading up to 1914. Due to this, Rodgers points out that all previous allegations were dropped, and a new-found loyalty was established.

Rodgers also demonstrates the political activity of Lithuanians with the small but influential socialist element within the community. However, he states that it was mainly confined to a small group of class-conscious workers and the majority of immigrants were more concerned with making a living rather than politics but once it became apparent that joining a union could provide better living conditions, this is the action they took.

Despite the unionisation of workers, this created a divide in the community itself with the Lithuanian clergy opposing socialists which were viewed as ‘godless people’. The Lithuanian community was therefore divided into those who adhered to some form of socialist activity and those who were committed to the Catholic faith.

Rodgers concludes with the impact that the Anglo-Russian Military Convention of 1917 had on the Lithuanian community. All men between eighteen and forty were to join the British Army or face deportation. The clergy actively encouraged those to join the army in comparison to socialists who aimed to return home. After socialists left and fought for the Bolsheviks, they were denied entry back into Scotland and women and children were also forced back home due to lack of money and employment opportunities. Therefore, by March 1920, 600 women and children returned. Rodgers highlights how communities that had previously flourished before the war had now disappeared and were largely broken.

 

 

Siobhan's posts

Terri Colpi ‘The Scottish Italian Community’ (1993)

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Historian Terri Colpi specialises within British Italian community at the University of St Andrews. She has written several books on the Italian community migrating to Britain.

This particular chapter focuses upon the Italian immigrants within Scotland and the difficulties they faced with there community. Within the title, the author uses Italian as she writes “Senza un campanile?” which translates to “Without a bell-tower?” Within Italy is well- known that the campanile was rung for a communal service which gave an indication to when it was time to pray, it is was also rung on special occasions for example baptisms, weddings, funerals etc therefore it held sentimental value in bringing the Italian community together. The author, therefore, argues throughout the chapter that due to certain Italian churches within Scotland not having the campanile there has definitely been a struggle to keep the community close as it once used to be within Italy.

Colpi establishes that the Italians failed to authorise their own campanile due to reduced religious activity. She then continues this argument by expressing that religion was no longer the main priority for many Italian Immigrants within Scotland, many prioritized work commitments over religion and would often only attend church for family events such as weddings as opposed to traditionally attending every Sunday. Another key point the author establishes is that many of these Italian immigrants within Scotland had now introduced working on Sundays as the author states, “Because of the nature of their work in the catering trades often seven days a week, twelve hours a day there was little time for other religious devotions”. This is something that was newly implemented as this would have not been the case within the Italian community previously as Sundays were seen a sacred which employees would often ensure they would not work.  It was known that the Italian communities, particularly from Northern Italy became heavily involved with their own Italian cuisine and introduced fish and chip shops as well as ice cream shops. For example, the well-established Nardini family within Scotland successfully set up numerous fish and chips shops within Largs as their famous family ice-cream recipe is famously known throughout Scotland.

This article also focuses on the social community and religion as the author argued that both aspects were interlinked with each other. She argues that often a community will only tolerate its own kind of religion, for example, the Italians were known to follow the Catholic religion, therefore, they would often be known to only accept other Italian Catholics as opposed to other Catholics from other ethnic communities such as the Irish. Lastly, Colpi contributes to the issues of the “internal community” between the Italian immigrants that could be distributed to the division within Glasgow between two different types of Italians i.e. based on their origins of Italy. There was a clear confrontation between the two groups as they would actively avoid each other completely. This clearly played a large factor in the difficulties the Italian community i.e. a detached community. Overall ‘The Scottish Italian Community’ by Terri Colpi depicts the Italian Immigrants within Scotland and successfully evaluates some of the key factors of not having a Campiline resulting in the division of the Italian community within Scotland, and the chapter therefore successfully illustrates the Italian Immigrants within 20th century Scotland.