Tag: Session 3

Gemma's posts

‘The Lithuanians’ by Murdoch Rodgers (1985)

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In this article Rodgers discusses the push and pull factors which made Lithuanians emigrate to Britain but mainly Scotland. He identifies the various experiences that this group had in relation to employment, politics and social life as well as the struggles they faced from dealing with opposition from locals, the press and the government. Through examining all of these factors, Rodgers successfully highlights how the Lithuanian community maintained their identity within the large community that was established until it was significantly deteriorated after the First World War.

Firstly, Rodgers discusses the push and pull factors which encouraged Lithuanians to go to Britain and contribute to the growth of the community. Predominately peasants, they were pushed to leave Lithuania due to the huge decline in their standard of living as a result of an increase in population, heavier taxation and a fall in grain prices. Such a change to their standard of living was so significant that Rodgers highlights how one in four Lithuanians made the decision to leave between 1868 and 1914. Additionally, he notes the important factor that around 15,000 Lithuanians were resident in Scotland before moving to further destinations like America and it was cheaper for them to travel through the ports of Leith and Glasgow rather than go direct. Scotland also provided financial opportunities through the expanding coal, steel and iron industries in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. Through these employment opportunities, many were also offered housing which encouraged them to stay. Rodgers also points out how the growth of the Lithuanian community was sustained through the ‘emigrant letter’, which was their continued contact with family back in Lithuania after they had emigrated.

Whilst working and living in Britain the Lithuanian community faced considerable opposition from the locals, particularly in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. Rodgers highlights that as early as 1887, the Ayrshire Miners Union led by Keir Hardie demanded their removal, as their presence was “menace to the health and morality of the place and is besides, being used to reduce the already too low wages earned by the workmen.” Similar was the situation in Lanarkshire which was the main settlement for Lithuanians. Here, the Lanarkshire County Miners Union protested again the underestimated presence of Lithuanians in the mines. Additionally, in one of the Lanarkshire newspapers in 1900 the Lithuanian community were made out to be unclean and barbarous with ingrained violence and anarchy. It is also important to note that they were referred to as ‘Poles’, suggesting that their nationality was ignored, and the main focus was on how negative their presence was. With regards to opposition, Rodgers points out that at the time the mining community already contained squalid living conditions, heavy drinking and reckless behaviour. Therefore, in terms of ‘health’ and ‘morality’ it was easier for them to direct such concerns at outsiders rather than addressing it themselves.

However, Rodgers goes onto discuss how unionisation became significant in improving relations between the Lithuanian labour force and the LCMU. After encouraging Lithuanian membership in the union through printing rules in the language and offering entitlement to include full benefits, the Lithuanian labour force began to take an active part in union affairs in the years leading up to 1914. Due to this, Rodgers points out that all previous allegations were dropped, and a new-found loyalty was established.

Rodgers also demonstrates the political activity of Lithuanians with the small but influential socialist element within the community. However, he states that it was mainly confined to a small group of class-conscious workers and the majority of immigrants were more concerned with making a living rather than politics but once it became apparent that joining a union could provide better living conditions, this is the action they took.

Despite the unionisation of workers, this created a divide in the community itself with the Lithuanian clergy opposing socialists which were viewed as ‘godless people’. The Lithuanian community was therefore divided into those who adhered to some form of socialist activity and those who were committed to the Catholic faith.

Rodgers concludes with the impact that the Anglo-Russian Military Convention of 1917 had on the Lithuanian community. All men between eighteen and forty were to join the British Army or face deportation. The clergy actively encouraged those to join the army in comparison to socialists who aimed to return home. After socialists left and fought for the Bolsheviks, they were denied entry back into Scotland and women and children were also forced back home due to lack of money and employment opportunities. Therefore, by March 1920, 600 women and children returned. Rodgers highlights how communities that had previously flourished before the war had now disappeared and were largely broken.

 

 

Siobhan's posts

Terri Colpi ‘The Scottish Italian Community’ (1993)

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Historian Terri Colpi specialises within British Italian community at the University of St Andrews. She has written several books on the Italian community migrating to Britain.

This particular chapter focuses upon the Italian immigrants within Scotland and the difficulties they faced with there community. Within the title, the author uses Italian as she writes “Senza un campanile?” which translates to “Without a bell-tower?” Within Italy is well- known that the campanile was rung for a communal service which gave an indication to when it was time to pray, it is was also rung on special occasions for example baptisms, weddings, funerals etc therefore it held sentimental value in bringing the Italian community together. The author, therefore, argues throughout the chapter that due to certain Italian churches within Scotland not having the campanile there has definitely been a struggle to keep the community close as it once used to be within Italy.

Colpi establishes that the Italians failed to authorise their own campanile due to reduced religious activity. She then continues this argument by expressing that religion was no longer the main priority for many Italian Immigrants within Scotland, many prioritized work commitments over religion and would often only attend church for family events such as weddings as opposed to traditionally attending every Sunday. Another key point the author establishes is that many of these Italian immigrants within Scotland had now introduced working on Sundays as the author states, “Because of the nature of their work in the catering trades often seven days a week, twelve hours a day there was little time for other religious devotions”. This is something that was newly implemented as this would have not been the case within the Italian community previously as Sundays were seen a sacred which employees would often ensure they would not work.  It was known that the Italian communities, particularly from Northern Italy became heavily involved with their own Italian cuisine and introduced fish and chip shops as well as ice cream shops. For example, the well-established Nardini family within Scotland successfully set up numerous fish and chips shops within Largs as their famous family ice-cream recipe is famously known throughout Scotland.

This article also focuses on the social community and religion as the author argued that both aspects were interlinked with each other. She argues that often a community will only tolerate its own kind of religion, for example, the Italians were known to follow the Catholic religion, therefore, they would often be known to only accept other Italian Catholics as opposed to other Catholics from other ethnic communities such as the Irish. Lastly, Colpi contributes to the issues of the “internal community” between the Italian immigrants that could be distributed to the division within Glasgow between two different types of Italians i.e. based on their origins of Italy. There was a clear confrontation between the two groups as they would actively avoid each other completely. This clearly played a large factor in the difficulties the Italian community i.e. a detached community. Overall ‘The Scottish Italian Community’ by Terri Colpi depicts the Italian Immigrants within Scotland and successfully evaluates some of the key factors of not having a Campiline resulting in the division of the Italian community within Scotland, and the chapter therefore successfully illustrates the Italian Immigrants within 20th century Scotland.

Oliwia's posts

Harold Pollins, ‘The Jews’

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This article by Harold Pollins, as the name suggests focuses on the experiences of Jewish individuals within Britain, with a focus primarily on the years leading up to the First World War. Pollins was a renowned historian of Anglo-Jewish history. 

This article by Pollins provides an thorough discussion into the experiences of European Jews in the years leading up to the First World War and examines some of the push and pull factors for their migration. Pollins discusses that one of the major pull factors of Jewish migration westward was that of greater economic opportunity in lands of economic advancement such as Britain and North America, as well as the promise of freedom in a foreign land. A major push factor – especially for Russian Jews – was exactly the opposite of the pull factors above. Pollins highlights that in 1830s majority of the Russian Jewish population was forced to live in the Pale of Settlement. The Pale of Settlement was a western region of Imperial Russia between 1791 and 1917 where only the Jewish citizens could reside, and there residency was forbidden elsewhere.

The migration of Jews into Britain, as Pollins highlights was often a place of trans-shipment where they stopped temporarily on their way to American cities, such as New York. However, during their stop it is documented that some were tricked out of money, leaving them stranded in Britain (this links well with ‘Point of Arrival’ by Herman Landau, 1887). In some cases however, Pollins advocates for chain migration of European Jews who likely followed their family or friends who arrived here before them. The articles points out that although Jewish migration into Britain was a cause for concern amongst the public, which can be seen through the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration – which was primarily focused on Jews – as well as the 1905 Aliens Act, it is important to note that European Jewish migrants accounted for 1-2% on the population increase between in the year 1881-1911.

Pollins examines the settlement of Jews in Britain also through looking at where they settled and other aspects of their communities. The article summarises that Jewish migrants were easily distinguished in Britain due to speaking Yiddish and their sense of dress primarily, which added to the view of them as ‘aliens’. Pollins notes that Jewish migrants stuck together through settling in cities where they formed their own communities and working primarily in the same sectors/for the same employers.

In terms of evidence, Pollins focuses greatly on statistics of population increases as well as an analysis of the sectors in which Jewish migrants were employed. Further, Pollins reflects on the Booth survey of the 1880’s which he says contributed to the associated of poor working conditions with Jewish immigrants. Lastly, Pollins also refers to a couple of newspapers in order to illustrate the hostile attitudes towards Jewish incomers.

Christy's posts

“The Germans” Aronsfeld, C. C, 1985

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This article was written by Author C.C Aronsfeld in 1985,  published within history today. He discusses from his own personal experiences, life as a European Jew, after being impacted by  Nazi Germany. The article describes what life was like for individuals such as Aronsfeld,  after migrating to Britain, in search of a better and safer life during times of war.

By 1914 there was already a large number of Germans living within Britain at approximately 19,000. Many had come in search of freedom, safety, and better economic opportunities. However, Aronsfeld details shortly after this large influx of migrants, the “spymania” craze took place, where many British individuals turned violent and ensued hatred towards the minority group, which became increasingly popular,  blaming the Germans and Jewish for being spies during a time of war. H.G Wells described England at the time,  “All dignity was broken” towards its nationalists who started looting and destroying all shops owned, or even sounding like they were owned under a German name. Even businessmen or parliamentary men who had before been highly respected within the community were targets to the open violence.

“I have been ostracised by my native country…. I am boycotted by my adopted country”

This quote taken from the article (p8.) shows how Aronsfeld described the treatment of the German immigrants living within Britain during this period by the British public.  He describes how they were made to feel like enemy aliens, with the use of extreme prejudice and unfriendly attitudes, after the two world wars, within a place they had once sought refuge within. They no longer felt safe or welcome within either their birth country within Germany or their adopted home in Great Britain.

However, Prime minister at the time (1918) Herbert Asquith declared within parliament about the so-called “aliens” that he felt that a great body of the German minority group were respectful and honest. He discussed how a large sum of them worked with technical job sectors, and could not be spared, as they contributed a lot to the country and its wages.

An example given by Aronsfeld of the types of extreme prejudice and anti-Sematic views came from Sir Robert Van Sitart. Sitart was an understudy to the state of foreign affairs, 1938. He saw nazi views as being “deep-rooted” and refused to spare even those who had been proved anti-nazi living within Britain, he described them as “wolves in sheep’s clothing” giving an insight into how those within places of high power viewed germans as a whole, within Britain, categorizing them all as spies, and betrayers. His views were opposed by liberal groups of refugees who tried to campaign against his anti-semantic views within the “Fight for Freedom”.

Lastly, another example of the terrible conditions, and attitudes the German and German Jewish groups within Briain faced, was the use of a striking image (p15) of a camp in North England, 1940. The camp pictures a large group of refugees behind bard wired fences, surrounded by guards after being captured by the police. It is a clear example of anti-semantic behaviour, treating refugees like animals due to their race, religious beliefs, and country of origin.

The article, therefore, gives an insight into the lives and types of conditions, and problems that the Germans, and German Jewish minorities faced during the period of war between Nazi Germany and Britain, from an individual who identifies as a Europan Jewish man himself. It covers the term “aliens” and how this word was used to describe the treatment and attitudes migrants would be subject to, and how this reflects upon immigrants and immigration during the 20th century, from both everyday working families, as well as those in high positions of power such as the government. The article details upon further reading on the topic from a different viewpoint, including; Elie Halevy “history of the English people” pelican, 1979. A. J Sherman “Britain and refugees from the Third Reich 1933-1939″.

 

Justin's posts

P. J. Waller, ‘The Chinese’.

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‘The Chinese’ by P.J Waller was an article published in History Today in 1985. It describes in detail the role of Chinese immigrants who came to Britain post 1851. This article covers a range of topics from attitudes towards Chinese immigrants, the influence the Chinese had on horticulture, and the presumptive stereotypes the British had on the people still living in Asia. One of the main points of this article is to show that despite Chinese immigration being one of the lowest in Britain – 91,000 in 1983 (0.2% of population.) – they still had a profound impact on British culture.

This article focuses on how the Chinese were described as ‘ambivalent’. This was because those who began to dislike them were the poorer classes, whereas those who embraced their culture were typically the British elite. The poorer classes were more likely to dislike the Chinese because they created greater competition for jobs. However, the Chinese were willing to take lesser wages and did not mind harsher working conditions making them more desirable to employers. For example, they opened laundries taking business away from women and the poor who relied on doing washings to help get extra income. This caused 30 Chinese laundries to get wrecked in 1911 by rioters during the transport workers strikes. This was different from the elite who admired their metal, cloisonné, stoneware, porcelain, and ivory designs. However, even amongst the British elite they were still sceptical of what type of people are coming over from China. For example, it was primarily male who immigrated over from China – by 1911, 87 Chinese born were female – causing concern about British racial purity.

Interestingly, the Chinese rarely ever created homogenous communities in Britain and out of all the different immigrant groups, the Chinese were the least assimilated. They were typically dispersed across Britain with there communities covering one or two streets. These were adequately nicknamed, ‘Little Chinatowns’. These communities were quickly given a negative reputation based on the already negative Chinese stereotypes. For example, they were associated with crime, gambling, and opium abuse. The Chinese immigrants were usually refugees escaping persecution from Hong Kong and Malaysia, particularly during the late 19th century. This resulted in them getting homed by the government which was perceived as ‘special’ treatment by the poorer Brits. This meant that Chinese homes were frequently broken into and looted. Chinese restaurants were also a significant economic driver and acted as a communal meeting place for the Chinese. By 1960, there was over a thousand restaurants in Britain, employing anywhere between 5 and 15 people.

Waller spends a good portion of his article describing how the British perceived the people on mainland China. They viewed it as a country with centuries of despotism ruled by the same family for 1300 years. The Brits felt that the Chinese were more primitive as a result due to what they believed was citizens being oppressed for centuries whilst the rich just stayed rich. This also went against the British increasing liberal views, hence why they feared the prospect of millions of Chinese immigrating to Britain at once in the future.